Microorganisms in Milk

Microorganisms in Milk

Milk is sterile at secretion in the udder but is contaminated by bacteria even before it leaves the udder. Except in the case of mastitis, the bacteria at this point are harmless and few in number. Further infection of the milk by microorganisms can take place during milking, handling, storage, and other pre-processing activities.

Lactic acid bacteria: 

This group of bacteria is able to ferment lactose to lactic acid. They are normally present in the milk and are also used as starter cultures in the production of cultured dairy products such as yogurt. Note: many lactic acid bacteria have recently been reclassified; the older names will appear in brackets as you will still find the older names used for convenience sake in a lot of literature. Some examples in milk are:

·         Lactococci

o   L. delbrueckii subsp. lactis (Streptococcus lactis )

o   Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris (Streptococcus cremoris )

·         Lactobacilli

o   Lactobacillus casei

o   L.delbrueckii subsp. lactis (L. lactis )

o   L. delbrueckii subsp. Bulgaricus (Lactobacillus bulgaricus)

·         Leuconostoc

Coliforms: 

Coliforms are facultative anaerobes with an optimum growth at 37° C. Coliforms are indicator organisms; they are closely associated with the presence of pathogens but not necessarily pathogenic themselves. They also can cause rapid spoilage of milk because they are able to ferment lactose with the production of acid and gas, and are able to degrade milk proteins. They are killed by HTST (high temperature short time) treatment; therefore, their presence after treatment is indicative of contamination. Escherichia coli is an example belonging to this group.

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Milk hygiene

Milk hygiene

Milk hygiene is concerned with the production of clean, wholesome milk that is free from bacteria or other disease causing micro-organisms and maintenance of this condition from farm to the consumers.

In general milk is considered as the most nutritious and complete food for neonates and adult human beings both. An approximate composition of major constituents in milk of different animal origins is given in Table below:    

Table: Percent composition of milk of different animal origins

Source (Animal)	Percent composition
	Total Protein	Casein	Whey protein	Fat	Carbohydrate
Buffalo	4.0	3.5	0.5	7.5	4.8
Cow	3.5	2.8	0.7	3.7	4.8
Goat	3.6	2.7	0.9	4.1	4.7
Sheep	5.8	4.9	0.9	7.9	4.5

Dairy industry provides an excellent example where bacteria, yeasts, moulds and viruses are very important in determining the quality of final product. The control and destruction of undesirable microorganisms, as well as their intentional introduction and utilization are problems that need special attention. The nutritional qualities of milk make it a desirable food for humans and other young animals. However, these nutritional values also permit growth of many microorganisms, some of which cause undesirable changes in milk and its products. Milks sanitary qualities are influenced by many factors in the course of production, processing, and delivery to the consumers.

An example of dairy industry which is dependent to a larger extent on the desirable enzymatic changes caused by microorganisms is cheese making. The flavours and the texture of cheese are largely ascribed to the conversion of milk constituents by various species. Few bacterial and mould species are added intentionally to cheese during manufacturing and much of the microbial activity in that, takes place during ripening are due to microbial species that enter the milk by chance at different stages.

The taste and aroma are competitive assets of butter. Starter cultures; that are mixed bacterial cultures selected for acid- and flavor-producing ability, are important in the manufacture of flavored butter. The conditions in which optimum flavor develops and the relationships with microbes are well known, and certainly the changes brought about by the starters are desirable.

Yogurt, sour cream, and buttermilk are some of the examples of fermented milks made by different intervention of microorganisms to milk, cream, and skim milk, respectively. Each of those products has a characteristic micro-flora that is partly responsible, for its characteristic flavor and texture. It is also possible to ferment milks having desired properties (i.e. flavor and acid-producing) by using starter cultures.

Microbial conversion of certain constituents of milk into economically valuable products like vitamins, solvents, and food adjuncts can be done commercially these days. On the other hand, milk constituents that have no economic significance, or that are usually wasted, must be converted to stably oxidized and non-obnoxious substances prior to their discharge into the environment. Here also microbial activity is responsible for the desired changes in the organic constituents of dairy wastes and of sewage treatment.

Microbes are undesirable in milk or its products, if these deteriorate flavor or texture, and produce diseases. It is important that dairy microbiologists understand the facts that influence the deterioration of milk and the methods through which this type of deterioration can be prevented. Souring of milk or cream is undesirable under majority of situations, but souring (i.e. production of lactic acid) is essential also for the manufacture of cheese or cultured milk products. Discolorations, sliminess, ropiness, putrefaction, rancidity, gassiness, and many other defects are caused by different microbes that grow in dairy products. Milk occasionally has been the carrier of microbes that can cause disease. However, these agents of disease can be effectively controlled. As the new processes and products are developed by the dairy scientists, these must be checked to ensure that these are safe for consumers.

Many ordinances and other regulations under which milk is produced and handled specify quantitative, qualitative, and microbial standards. These standards have shown that under desirable conditions, the numbers of microbes gaining entrance to the product will not exceed certain levels and, also, that proper handling of these products will not permit growth beyond certain levels. To a certain degree, the numbers of microbes permitted on these standards usually are far much below the numbers necessary to cause spoilage. Practically this results into a gradual up-gradation of microbial standards for different dairy products. Because of this type of control, the packaged milk produced by dairy industries is of high microbiological quality and hence, safe to the consumers.

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Blood brain barrier: BBB

Blood brain barrier: (BBB)

• A physical / functional barrier which does not permit ionized and non lipid soluble drugs to pass through into the Central Nervous System
• It is mainly formed by the endothelial cells of the CNS blood vessels. Its purpose is to protect the brain from the chemical environment of the rest of the body due to the delicate balance between excitation and inhibition maintained within the CNS.
• The brain capillaries do not contain fenestrations (holes). There are more tight junctions in brain capillaries decreasing the rate of diffusion through interstitial spaces. Glial cells ensheath the brain capillaries providing a second set of cell membranes which must be traversed as well as a second intracellular compartment where cellular metabolic processes can transform entering substances
• Chemical or enzymatic barrier - MonoAmineOxidase, cholinesterase - This barrier prevents 5 HT, catecholamines, ACh from entry into CNS
• Carrier mediated transport – to facilitate exit of drugs
• Highly lipophilic drugs enter easily because they cross membranes. (Fig. 18) Unionized forms of drugs enter more easily than ionized forms. Penicillin, streptomycin, gentamicin – do not cross the BBB
• Chloramphenicol - can cross the BBB

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Terminology Related to Drug

• Drug is any chemical agent except food that is used to promote or safeguard the health of human beings or animals. It is also defined as any substance or product that is used or intended, to be used to modify or explore physiological systems or pathological states for the benefit of the recipient. The word drug is derived from a French word ‘Drogue’ meaning a dry herb.
• Over the counter drugs are those preparations that can be sold without any prescription because they can be adequately labeled for layman use.
• Prescription drugs are drugs that can be used only on the order of a licensed veterinarian/physician/dentist/surgeon based on a prescription. They are also known as legend drugs.
• Essential drugs are agents that satisfy the healthcare needs of majority of the population. They should therefore be available at all times in adequate amounts and in appropriate dosage form.
• Pro-drugs are drugs that are inactive or have a low order of activity in the form administered and are metabolised to the active form in the body.
• Hard drugs are drugs used for non-medical purposes that are liable to disable the individual seriously as a functioning member of the society by inducing severe psychological and/or physical dependence. eg. Heroin
• Soft drugs are drugs used for non-medical purposes that are less dependence producing. There may be psychological dependence but not physical dependence, except with heavy dose. eg. Amphetamine.
• Nootropic drugs are drugs that affect the intellect. These drugs are claimed to enhance learning, increase brain resistance to stress including hypoxia and stimulate brain metabolism especially in senile patients. eg. Piracetam
• Orphan drugs are drugs or biological products useful for diagnosis/treatment/prevention of a rare disease condition for which there is no reasonable expectation that the cost of developing and marketing it will be recovered from the sales of that drug. Eg. Acetylcysteine. These drugs may be life saving for some patients, but are not commercially available.
• Placebo is a vehicle for cure by suggestion and is surprisingly often successful though only temporarily. It can be used as a control in scientific evaluation of drugs and to benefit or please a patient not by pharmacological actions but by psychological means (Latin: Placebo – I shall be pleasing or acceptable). Placebo reactor is an individual who report changes of physical and mental state after taking a pharmacologically inert substance.

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WHO Model List of Essential Medicines

I share a PDF Document for you containing WHO Model List of Essential Medicines.

It contain all essential medicine. I share it for medical and veterinary student.
All the sources are included in Document.


WHO Model List of Essential Medicines is published by the World Health Organization (WHO). The first list, published in 1977, included 204 pharmaceutical drugs.  The WHO updates the list every two years. The WHO later added a separate WHO Model List of Essential Medicines for Children up to 12 years of age. As of 2016, at least 156 countries have created national lists of essential medicines based on the WHO’s model list. The national lists contain between 334 and 580 medications. In April 2015, the WHO published the 19th edition of the adult list and 5th edition of the list for children.

 The following list is based on the 19th edition of the adult list:

1 Anaesthetics

 1.1 General anaesthetics and oxygen
1.1.1 Inhalational medicines
 • Halothane • Isoflurane • Nitrous oxide • Oxygen
 1.1.2 Injectable medicines • Ketamine • Propofol[note 1]

 1.2 Local anaesthetics

 • Bupivacaine • Lidocaine • Lidocaine + epinephrine • Ephedrine† (not a local anaesthetic, included in this list for prevention of hypotension associated with spinal anaesthesia during caesarean section)
1.3 Preoperative medication and sedation for short-term procedures
 • Atropine • Midazolam • Morphine 2 Medicines for pain and palliative care

 2.1 Nonopioids and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) 

• Acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) • Ibuprofen • Paracetamol[note 2] (acetaminophen) 2.2 Opioid analgesics • Codeine • Morphine

Befor get the whole pdf please like our facebook page for more information

WHO Model List of Essential Medicines Download.

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Canine Distemper in Dogs

Short Note on Rabies

What is Canine Distemper?

 Canine distemper is a contagious and serious viral illness with no known cure. The disease affects dogs, and certain species of wildlife, such as raccoons, wolves, foxes, and skunks. The common house pet, the ferret, is also a carrier of this virus. Canine distemper belongs to the Morbillivirus class of viruses, and is a relative of the measles virus, which affects humans, the Rinderpest virus that affects cattle, and the Phocinevirus that causes seal distemper. All are members of the Paramyxoviridae family. Young, unvaccinated puppies and non-immunized older dogs tend to be more susceptible to the disease.

Symptoms and Types of Distemper in Dogs

The virus, which is spread through the air and by direct or indirect (i.e. utensils, bedding) contact with an infected animal, initially attacks a dog’s tonsils and lymph nodes and replicates itself there for about one week. It then attacks the respiratory, urogenital, gastrointestinal, and nervous systems.

In the initial stages of Canine Distemper, the major symptoms include high fever (≥103.5 ° F, or 39.7° C), reddened eyes, and a watery discharge from the nose and eyes. An infected dog will become lethargic and tired, and will usually becomeanorexic. Persistent coughing, vomiting, and diarrhea may also occur. In the later stages of the disease, the virus starts attacking the other systems of the dog’s body, particularly the nervous system. The brain and spinal cord are affected and the dog may start having fits, seizures, paralysis, and attacks of hysteria.

Canine distemper is sometimes also called “hard pad disease” because certain strains of the virus can cause an abnormal enlargement or thickening of the pads of an animal’s feet. In dogs or animals with weak immune systems, death may result two to five weeks after the initial infection.

Diagnosis and Treatment of Canine Distemper in Dogs 

Canine distemper is diagnosed with biochemical tests and urine analysis, which may also reveal a reduced number of lymphocytes, the white blood cells that function in the immune system in the initial stages of the disease (lymphopenia). A serology test may identify positive antibodies, but this test cannot distinguish between vaccination antibodies and an exposure to a virulent virus. Viral antigens may be detected in urine sediment or vaginal imprints. Haired skin, nasal mucous, and the footpad epithelium may be tested for antibodies as well. Radiographs can only be used to determine whether an infected animal has contracted pneumonia. Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans can be used to examine the brain for any lesions that may have developed.

Make sure  dog has completed his series of vaccinations. The vaccine for dogs is called the distemper shot. If you have a puppy, make sure he gets his first vaccination at six to eight weeks of age. Be sure to keep him away from any possibly infectious dogs or environments until he’s finished with his vaccinations at four or five months old.

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Components of TCM

Components of TCM:

TCM has four main mechanisms: acupuncture, herbal medicine, tui na and qi gong. Herbal medi­cines are generally delivered in compound for­mulae specially formulated for a clinical syndrome or collection of symptoms. Tui na is the ancient Chinese massage used for lymphatic drainage and muscle rejuvenation. Qi gong is the practice of energy movement in the body through physical movement.

The general theory of acupuncture is based on the principle that there are patterns of energy flow (Qi) through the body that are essential for health. Aberration of this flow is believed to be responsible for disease condi­tion.

Acupuncture is used to correct imbalances if Qi flow at particular anatomical locations just below the skin, the acupuncture points, by the stimulation of a variety of techniques. The studied mechanism of stimulation of acupuncture points employees penetration of the skin by thin, solid, specially tipped, metallic needles, which are ma­nipulated manually or by electrical current.

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Short Note on Rabies

Rabies is a virus that may affect the brain and spinal cord of all mammals, including dogs, cats and humans. 

Rabies causes the deaths of more than 50,000 humans and millions of animals worldwide. Once symptoms appear, the disease results in fatality.

Symptoms and Diagnosis

The common sign and symptoms of rabies are 

1. Restlessness

2. Disorientation or lack of coordination
3. Aggression
4. Licking, biting or chewing at the area of the infectious bite
5. Fever
6. Foaming at the mouth
7. Loss of control over the throat
8. Unusually docile behavior in an active animal
9. Biting or snapping

10. Heightened sensitivity to light, touch or sound
11. Paralysis of the hind legs or staggering
12. Hiding in dark places
13. Heavy breathing
14. Choking sounds or motions
15. Eating unusual items

Treatment

There is no treatment. Once the disease develops in humans, death is almost certain. There have been several reported cases of dogs surviving the infection, but they are very rare.

Vaccination and prevention

Vaccination is the best way to prevent infection. Dogs can be vaccinated for rabies (some countries do not have the presence of rabies so will not offer this vaccination, such as the United Kingdom). Keep your dog leashed outdoors and always supervise him when outside. Avoid contact with wild animals where possible.

Summary

All warm-blooded animals are at risk for contracting rabies, however, some species are much more resistant than others. Transmission of the virus is almost always through a bite from a rabid animal. There are a variety of different symptoms and once contracted there is no cure, and death is almost always the outcome. The disease is very preventable through vaccination. While relatively rare in humans, the risk of contracting it, and the outcome of the disease make taking precautions with wild animals and vaccination of domestic ones essential.

Kazi Abdus Sobur

DVM (2018)

Bangladesh

sobur.dvm.jgvc@gmail.com

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What is TCM (Traditional Chinese Medicine)

Meaning of TCM:

Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) is an inclu­sive coordination of medical contemplation, pathophysiological concepts and therapeutic in­terventions, that develops out of the matrix of Chi­nese civilization over a period spanning more than 4000 years.

Chinese medicinal system has gotten its debut by taking references from Yellow Emperor’s Classic of Internal Medicine based on the idea that all life is subjected to natural laws and Yin-Yang theory.

These two theories were developed separately and differ in terms of diagnosis and therapy. The primary modality of TCM is the use of an extensive Pharmacopoeia of over 6000 herbal and other natural products for the preventions and treatment of diseases and the promotion of health.

TCM has been spread to Ja­pan and Korea earlier during post-cultural revolu­tion and gained its popularity as Kampoh system of medicine. Although it has developed its own characters giving due impor­tance of the styles of corresponding countries their simplicity and spontaneity, still the basic ideas remain alike. Even in USA, TCM has gained its acceptability now a day.

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Ovine haemonchosis

Ovine haemonchosis:

·         Pathogenesis of Haemonchosis is an acute haemorrahgic anemia due to blood sucking habit of       worms.

·         Each worm removes about 0.05ml of blood per day by ingestion and seepage (Leakage) forms the       lesions.

·         A sheep with 5000 H. contortus may lose about 250 ml blood daily.

·         In hyperacute Haemonchosis:

o   In heavier infection (up to 30,000 worms), the ewe will die suddenly from severe hemorrhagic gastritis.

·         In acute Haemonchosis:

o   Anaemia becomes apparent about two weeks of infections and is characterized by progressive and dramatic packed cell volume.

o   Continuous loss of iron and protein into gastrointestinal tract, the marrow eventually becomes exhausted.

o   When ewes are affected, the consequent agalactia may result in the death of the sucking lambs

o   At Necropsy:

§  2000 to 20,000 worms may be present on abomasal mucosa which show numerous small hemorrhagic spots.

§  The abomasal content is fluidy and dark brown due to the present altered blood

§  The carcass is pale and oedematous due to hypoprotenemia

§  The red marrow has expanded form the epiphyses into medullary cavity.

·         Chronic Haemonchosis:

o   Prolong dry season when reinfection is negligible but pasture becomes deficient in nutrient

o   Over such a period, continual loss of blood from intestine by several hundreds of worms

o   Associated with loss of weight, weakness and inappetence rather than marked anemia

Clinical Signs:

·   Hyper acute case:

·   Sheep die suddenly from hemorrhagic gastritis

·   Acute case: Characterized by-

·   Anaemia

·   Variable degree of oedema (Submandibular oedema and ascitis is more common)

·   Lethargy, Falling wool

·   Dark colored feces

·   Diarrhea is not general feature

·   Chronic case:

·   Progressive weight loss and weakness

·   Neither severe anaemia nor gross oedema is found

Diagnosis:

·   Clinical History:

·         Epidemiology:

o      Haemonchus contortus is distributed in tropical, sub tropical or in temperate areas.

o      Haemonchosis occurs optimally at relatively high temperature/ warm climate

o      High humidity is required for larval development in faeces

o      Immuned sheep always contaminate the pasture i.e acts as carried

o      The infective larvae are relatively resistant to desiccation and may survive for 1-3 months on pasture or in feces

o      Hypobiosis occurs in prolong dry period (L₄)

o      Frequent rainfall, no hypobiosis

Clinical Signs: Already mentionded

Coproscopy with fecal egg count:

·         Characteristic egg under microscope

·         High fecal worm egg count (2000-20,000) indicate the acute haemonchosis

Necropsy findings: Already mentioned

Treatment:

·         Benzimidazoles/Levamisole/Avermectin

·         Move to safe pasture

 Control: See GeNeral Control Measures for Nematodes

Note : Caprine or Bovine Haemonchosis: Similar to ovine haemonchosis

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