Regulation of Broadcast Media

In the United States, freedom of press does not necessarily mean an unregulated media.

Some of the more notable aspects of broadcast law include:

• frequency allocation: The division of the spectrum into unlicensed frequency bands, such as ISM band and U-NII band, and licensed frequency bands, along with television channel frequencies, FM broadcast band, and amateur radio frequency.
• low-power broadcasting
• Fairness Doctrine
• public broadcasting

Today, broadcasting rights fall under the jurisdiction of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), but other legislations set the precedent for this modern day law.

The History of Broadcasting Law

The Radio Act of 1927 was the first major broadcasting law in the country. Among its provisions was the equal opportunity provision, which provided a foundation for the equal time rule. This provision required radio stations, television stations and cable systems, which originated their own programming, to treat legally qualified political candidates equally when it came to selling or giving away air time. This provision was a result of legislators' growing concerns that, without mandated equal opportunity for candidates, some broadcasters might try to manipulate elections.

The Communications Act of 1934 amended the Radio Act, and the equal time provision is located in Section 315 of the Communications Act. This act was another crucial moment in broadcasting law history, because it created the Federal Communications Commission (FCC, ). The FCC's intent was to "regulat[e] interstate and foreign commerce in communication by wire and radio so as to make available, so far as possible, to all the people of the United States, without discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, or sex, a rapid, efficient, Nation wide, and world wide wire and radio communications service . . . ". (In this context, the word "radio" covers both broadcast radio and television). The FCC has the authority to "make such regulations not inconsistent with law as it may deem necessary to prevent interference between stations and to carry out the provisions of [the] Act. "

FCC Commissioners inspect the latest in television (1939).

The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has promised to ensure fairness in broadcasting.

In 1949, the FCC enacted the Fairness Doctrine for the purpose of ensuring balanced and fair coverage of all controversial issues by a broadcast station. The FCC adopted the view that station licensees were "public trustees," and therefore, had an obligation to broadcast contrasting viewpoints on controversial issues of public importance. It was later established that stations should also actively seek out issues of importance to their community and air programming about those issues. During the 1980s, the Reagan Administration pressured the FCC to eliminate the Fairness Doctrine, but was unsuccessful in its attempts.

Source: Boundless. “Regulation of Broadcast Media.” Boundless Political Science. Boundless, 26 May. 2016. Retrieved 20 Jul. 2016 from https://www.boundless.com/political-science/textbooks/boundless-political-science-textbook/the-media-10/the-role-of-the-media-in-politics-71/regulation-of-broadcast-media-393-5164/

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Media

Media in the United States comprises several different types of widespread communication: television, radio, cinema, newspapers, magazines, and Internet-based websites (especially blogs). Many of these networks are controlled by large, for-profit corporations that reap revenue from advertising, subscriptions, and the sale of copyrighted material. American media conglomerates tend to be leading global players, generating substantial revenue, not to mention fierce opposition in many parts of the world. Further deregulation and convergence are under way, suggesting more mega-mergers, greater concentration of media ownership, and the emergence of multinational media conglomerates. Critics allege that localism (local news and other content at the community level), media spending and coverage of news, and diversity of ownership and represented views have suffered as a result of such processes.

Theories on the success of such companies note a reliance on certain policies of the American federal government as well as a natural tendency to produce monopolies in the industry. Many prominent news organizations such as CBS, ABC, and Fox News are often criticized for creating political and corporate monopolies to boost popularity.

The organization Reporters Without Borders compiles and publishes an annual ranking of countries based on its assessment of their press freedom records . A smaller score on the index corresponds to greater freedom of press. Reporters Without Borders is careful to note that the index only addresses press freedom and does not measure the quality of journalism. In 2011-12 the United States was ranked 47^th out of 179 countries, which was a setback from the preceding year.

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How brains of talkative people differ from the quiet people

I've been quiet for as a long as I remember myself(I'm 20).I didn’t really care about it before because I had best friends who accepted me for who I am. However, after I left my friends and moved to another country I realized that I can’t build friendships with people. I go to college and I never can make decent conversation with anyone, I barely ever talk. I know it’s strange but I know how to smile, I know how to keep eye contact, be friendly, confident, and curious. When I try to talk to someone I ask open-ended questions but they never lead to conversation. I just can’t open up anyone and I never really open up myself. I don’t even talk much to my relatives and parents. I always read news, books, magazines,watch movies but it still doesn't help me to open up. I even tried different clubs but I always quit because I can’t connect with anyone there. I know people who only play games and don’t read at all but even they seem to be much more socialized than I am.I feel so lonely right now.


I think problem is with processing information in our brains and with the way we think. For example, I have always less to say than talkative person even If I went through the same experiences with that person. Whether it's movie, trips, parties, college classes, teachers I always have limited thoughts, thus my conversation is rather dull. I believe that it can be changed and we can improve our abilities to talk, we just need learn to think the way talkative people do. However, I currently don't know how talkative people process information which is why I'm asking you for help.

It seems I'm in the same boat as you. I've tried to change my actions first without changing thoughts first but that has gone nowhere. Now I'm trying to change my thoughts in the hopes that actions will follow. I'm stuck on how to change my thoughts though. I don't know how to go about it. It not as easy as just thinking good thoughts.

I find a talkative person may speak before thought. Not saying they are bad people.

Just not me.

I am a quiet person.

In Socialworld I feel I cannot take the needed amount of time to think. I will answer quickly. Say what I thought of something in three words.It was good. 

I am starting to ignore that feeling and taking my time.

You'll never know nor understand how a talkative person processes information. Like quiet people we're all different and will have different ways. 

This is from the mind of a quiet person.

I never used to be this quiet at all. I literally say nothing now. It's made work life very difficult. I literally can't find anything to say, then over analyze everything, and the pressure builds! I thought perhaps looking at things from another perspective would help, that's my new objective. I notice that talktative people, extroverts, are more openly curious about their environment and the people around them. They are rarely eloquent and say the right things, but the mere fact they engage people around them. We make it hard for them to engage us because we are very closed and unresponsive. It's a two way street that we block off. In knowing this, I feel even more frustrated, because in principle this is a very simple problem to solve, but in practice, damn near impossible! 

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How Much do UK Screenwriters Earn?

n America, screenwriters can earn an average annual wage of $77,260. At least, that’s what the Bureau of Labour Statistics tells us. The evidence is there: Bill Marsilii and Terry Rossio earned $5m for their spec of DEJA VU, while M. Night Shyamalan took home a healthy pay packet of £2.5m for THE SIXTH SENSE.
However, while the big guns continue to hog the (even bigger) bucks and headline deals, albeit pushing the limits of the financier’s generosity, exactly how much can the average scribe expect to earn on home soil? Industrial Scripts examined the rates paid to screenwriters working within the UK.

When negotiating a deal, the following are important components for the screenwriter to consider:
AGAINST – essentially, this stands for the value of unproduced script against produced script, eg. the fee if the project is green-lit. (DEJA VU valued $3m against $5m.)
OPTION – contractual agreement made between producer and writer/third party, which includes payment to hold ownership and rights on a screenplay (akin to rental). Option prices can reach 10% of the overall purchase price. (May include specified or negotiated fees for extensions if option exclusivity expires.)
GUARANTEE/FRONT-END – money guaranteed to writer and paid upfront by producers, regardless of whether the film is made.
STEP DEAL – fee paid upfront will usually be split into gradual payments according to targets involved throughout the process of reaching a final draft. (For example, a ‘three-step deal’ may include a fee for a first draft, a rewrite, and then a polish. Producers may negotiate/undertake further optional steps, regarding second drafts and rewrites. For all steps, money is usually paid to writer in the ratio of 50% upon commencement of step and 50% upon completion of step.)
BACK-END – money contingent on production and release, such as a payment triggered by the first day of shooting.
BONUSES – in addition to the ‘back-end’ fee, writers may receive bonuses, which are often based upon performance markers. This may include: box office returns, compensation regarding right of first-refusal of sequels, a budget bonus if the film attracts additional financing, and a sole-writer credit bonus if no other writers need to be hired. (Smaller bonuses are implemented for shared credit projects.)
Examples of the process of payments made within a step deal can be overviewed here.

UK Film Pay

As a general rule of thumb, screenplays account for 1% to 2% of a film’s budget. However, arguably, screenwriters are entitled to ask for up to 5% in fees paid to them for rights to the material. Overall, this means that screenplay compensation varies drastically, according to such individual production costs.

• If the budget of the film is MORE THAN £2m, the screenwriter can expect to receive a minimum fee of approx. £42,120
• If the budget of the film is BETWEEN £750k and £2m, the screenwriter can expect to receive a minimum fee of approx. £25,650
• If the budget of the film is UNDER £750k, the screenwriter can expect to receive a minimum fee of approx. £18,900

The figures indicated above represent the minimums outlined by the Writer’s Guild of Great Britain. However, specific negotiations and/or experience of the writer can elevate such fees and produce higher numbers within the UK, peaking around the £150,000 bench-mark for mid-level talent. These particular deals will be those that involve a greater number of steps and payments . Such steps do not necessarily indicate more work from the screenwriter, but are more likely a reflection of the bargaining power of established writers. Such screenwriters may wish for payment for every re-draft, whereas those of less experience may be willing to complete extra steps for free.
The indicated figures are also unlikely to present themselves in one jackpot pay-out, and are more likely to be distributed across the course of the step-deal, which may last a number of years. This is especially relevant in regards to back-end net bonuses  – so it may not come as such as a surprise that the majority of screenwriters who have ‘made it’, still work a 9-5 job. (Sigh!)

Television Pay in the UK

Within the Television industry, the majority of contracts are formed upon the foundations of a collective agreement secured by the Writer’s Guild, in collaboration with the BBC, ITV and any independent producers.
THE BBC
On a happier note, who wants pay just for getting out of bed? Work for the BBC!  once under contract, the company is willing to hand out £102 per physical attendance! (We’re pretty sure Steven Moffat is on an ever higher day-rate!)
As of the 1^st November 2015, the BBC agreed to increase the minimum fees of writers commissioned under the Television Writers and Sketch Agreements act by 2%. Small screen compensation does vary depending on origination of material – however, the following are the most current rates:
TELEPLAYS

• per minute of screen time: £192
• per hour of screen time: £11,520

SERIES/SERIALS

• per minute of screen time: £175
• per hour of screen time: £10,500

DRAMATISATIONS

• per minute of screen time: £127
• per hour of screen time: £7,620

EDUCATIONAL DRAMA

• per minute of screen time: £117
• per hour of screen time: £7,020

ITV
As of the 1^st May 2015, ITV also amended their minimum script commissioning fees, according to those detailed in Schedule B of the Agreement. They are as follows:
ORIGINAL TELEPLAY

• £13,283 per hour slot length (pro rata)

SERIES/SERIALS

• £10,395 per hour slot length (pro rata)

LONG RUNNING SERIES

• £3,465 per half hour slot length (pro rata)

Residuals and Repeat Fees

Residuals are usually calculated on the basis of ‘revenue’/company receipts, or are ‘fixed’/’run’ based, according to a set amount agreed for every exhibition of the work.
The following information regarding residuals and repeat fees has been sourced from the Writer’s Guild of Great Britain’s PACT (Producers Alliance for Cinema and Television) agreement, which was established in 1992, and can be seen in full here.
1) FEATURE FILMS BUDGETED AT £2M+

• TOTAL MINIMUM PAYMENT: £23,200
• TOTAL GUARANTEED PAYMENT: £31,200

 The Additional Use Pre-Payment fee is an advance against the payments listed below (all limited to seven years):

• UK TV – minimum payment of £6,000
• US NETWORK TV (PRIME TIME) – minimum payment of £13,000
• US NETWORK TV (NON-PRIME TIME) – minimum payment of £2,000
• PBS – minimum payment of £1,500
• REST OF WORLD FREE TV – minimum payment of £6,000
• US MAJOR PAY TV – minimum payment of £5,500
• OTHER US & REST OF WORLD PAY TV – minimum payment of £2,000
• VIDEO – minimum payment of £3,000

Screenwriting pay continues after the seven-year limit elapses; each additional UK television transmission of the feature film earns the screenwriter an extra 20% of the appropriate scale fee.
2) FEATURE FILMS BUDGETED BETWEEN £750,000 AND £2M
AND TELEVISION FILMS (OF 90 MINUTES) BUDGETED AT £750,000+

• TOTAL MINIMUM PAYMENT: £14,000
• ADDITIONAL USE PRE-PAYMENT: £5,000
• TOTAL GUARANTEED PAYMENT: £19,000

 Two additional rights can be purchased as part of the total minimum payment fee. Producers can opt to include WORLDWIDE THEATRICAL RIGHTS, or rights that grant them TWO UK NETWORK TV TRANSMISSIONS AND LIMITED DOMESTIC THEATRICAL RELEASE.
This fee buys all rights except those listed below, which amount to the Additional Use Pre-Payment fee:

• If producer opts for WORLDWIDE THEATRICAL RIGHTS: minimum payment of £3,750 per UK TV transmission (£1,250 per transmission, limited to a period of seven years)
• If producer opts for TWO UK NETWORK TV TRANSMISSIONS: minimum payment of £2,000 per additional transmission  – With this option, fees for FULL theatrical release in the UK and the US are subject to negotiation, whereas fees for the Rest of the World theatrical release equate to a minimum payment of £1,200

 Whether the producer opts for WORLDWIDE THEATRICAL RIGHTS, or TWO UK NETWORK TV TRANSMISSION, the following residuals apply thereafter:

• US NETWORK TV (PRIME TIME) – minimum payment of £9,750
• US NETWORK TV (NON-PRIME TIME) – minimum payment of £1,800
• PBS – minimum payment of £1,000
• REST OF WORLD FREE TV – minimum payment of £2,500
• US MAJOR PAY TV – minimum payment of £2,750
• OTHER US & REST OF WORLD PAY TV – minimum payment of £1,250
• VIDEOGRAM USE– minimum payment of £1,200

3) FILMS BUDGETED BELOW £750,000

• TOTAL MINIMUM PAYMENT: £14,000
• TOTAL GUARANTEED PAYMENT: £14,000

For this category of film, the Producer is not required to present any advance payment for additional uses. Other rates within this category coincide with the fees paid for the previous category of films – those budgeted between £750,000 and £2m.
However, while the PACT agreement remains the only collective agreement for film writer contracts in the country, the date of the document means that rates do not account for issues such as digital exploitation, or instances of inflation.
According to the Writer’s Guild Writing Film Practice Guide screenwriters must receive royalties for internet and/or video-on-demand downloads, which should be covered within their contracts. This includes films available for free over the internet, on sites such as YouTube. Internet companies must pay a fee for these rights.
In regards to New Media, the BBC pays TV drama screenwriters an additional 15% of the minimum fee for rights to use the programme on other services, including: catch-up, iPlayer, and repeats on sister channels, BBC3 and BBC4. Other channels have undergone a similar agreement. ITV pay lump sums to screenwriters for use of programmes on ITVplayer, while Channel 4 has paid writers royalties of 5.6 per cent for repeated use on 4oD.

In reference to downloads, BBC Worldwide award screenwriters royalties of 5.6 per cent of their receipts, while similarly, BBC and Channel 4 programmes downloaded from iTunes can, again, amount to 5.6 per cent’s worth of royalties.

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Plot overview of Death of a salesman

As a flute melody plays, Willy Loman returns to his home in Brooklyn one night, exhausted from a failed sales trip. His wife, Linda, tries to persuade him to ask his boss, Howard Wagner, to let him work in New York so that he won’t have to travel. Willy says that he will talk to Howard the next day. Willy complains that Biff, his older son who has come back home to visit, has yet to make something of himself. Linda scolds Willy for being so critical, and Willy goes to the kitchen for a snack.
As Willy talks to himself in the kitchen, Biff and his younger brother, Happy, who is also visiting, reminisce about their adolescence and discuss their father’s babbling, which often includes criticism of Biff’s failure to live up to Willy’s expectations. As Biff and Happy, dissatisfied with their lives, fantasize about buying a ranch out West, Willy becomes immersed in a daydream. He praises his sons, now younger, who are washing his car. The young Biff, a high school football star, and the young Happy appear. They interact affectionately with their father, who has just returned from a business trip. Willy confides in Biff and Happy that he is going to open his own business one day, bigger than that owned by his neighbor, Charley. Charley’s son, Bernard, enters looking for Biff, who must study for math class in order to avoid failing. Willy points out to his sons that although Bernard is smart, he is not “well liked,” which will hurt him in the long run.
A younger Linda enters, and the boys leave to do some chores. Willy boasts of a phenomenally successful sales trip, but Linda coaxes him into revealing that his trip was actually only meagerly successful. Willy complains that he soon won’t be able to make all of the payments on their appliances and car. He complains that people don’t like him and that he’s not good at his job. As Linda consoles him, he hears the laughter of his mistress. He approaches The Woman, who is still laughing, and engages in another reminiscent daydream. Willy and The Woman flirt, and she thanks him for giving her stockings.
The Woman disappears, and Willy fades back into his prior daydream, in the kitchen. Linda, now mending stockings, reassures him. He scolds her mending and orders her to throw the stockings out. Bernard bursts in, again looking for Biff. Linda reminds Willy that Biff has to return a football that he stole, and she adds that Biff is too rough with the neighborhood girls. Willy hears The Woman laugh and explodes at Bernard and Linda. Both leave, and though the daydream ends, Willy continues to mutter to himself. The older Happy comes downstairs and tries to quiet Willy. Agitated, Willy shouts his regret about not going to Alaska with his brother, Ben, who eventually found a diamond mine in Africa and became rich. Charley, having heard the commotion, enters. Happy goes off to bed, and Willy and Charley begin to play cards. Charley offers Willy a job, but Willy, insulted, refuses it. As they argue, Willy imagines that Ben enters. Willy accidentally calls Charley Ben. Ben inspects Willy’s house and tells him that he has to catch a train soon to look at properties in Alaska. As Willy talks to Ben about the prospect of going to Alaska, Charley, seeing no one there, gets confused and questions Willy. Willy yells at Charley, who leaves. The younger Linda enters and Ben meets her. Willy asks Ben impatiently about his life. Ben recounts his travels and talks about their father. As Ben is about to leave, Willy daydreams further, and Charley and Bernard rush in to tell him that Biff and Happy are stealing lumber. Although Ben eventually leaves, Willy continues to talk to him.
Back in the present, the older Linda enters to find Willy outside. Biff and Happy come downstairs and discuss Willy’s condition with their mother. Linda scolds Biff for judging Willy harshly. Biff tells her that he knows Willy is a fake, but he refuses to elaborate. Linda mentions that Willy has tried to commit suicide. Happy grows angry and rebukes Biff for his failure in the business world. Willy enters and yells at Biff. Happy intervenes and eventually proposes that he and Biff go into the sporting goods business together. Willy immediately brightens and gives Biff a host of tips about asking for a loan from one of Biff’s old employers, Bill Oliver. After more arguing and reconciliation, everyone finally goes to bed.
Act II opens with Willy enjoying the breakfast that Linda has made for him. Willy ponders the bright-seeming future before getting angry again about his expensive appliances. Linda informs Willy that Biff and Happy are taking him out to dinner that night. Excited, Willy announces that he is going to make Howard Wagner give him a New York job. The phone rings, and Linda chats with Biff, reminding him to be nice to his father at the restaurant that night.
As the lights fade on Linda, they come up on Howard playing with a wire recorder in his office. Willy tries to broach the subject of working in New York, but Howard interrupts him and makes him listen to his kids and wife on the wire recorder. When Willy finally gets a word in, Howard rejects his plea. Willy launches into a lengthy recalling of how a legendary salesman named Dave Singleman inspired him to go into sales. Howard leaves and Willy gets angry. Howard soon re-enters and tells Willy to take some time off. Howard leaves and Ben enters, inviting Willy to join him in Alaska. The younger Linda enters and reminds Willy of his sons and job. The young Biff enters, and Willy praises Biff’s prospects and the fact that he is well liked.
Ben leaves and Bernard rushes in, eagerly awaiting Biff’s big football game. Willy speaks optimistically to Biff about the game. Charley enters and teases Willy about the game. As Willy chases Charley off, the lights rise on a different part of the stage. Willy continues yelling from offstage, and Jenny, Charley’s secretary, asks a grown-up Bernard to quiet him down. Willy enters and prattles on about a “very big deal” that Biff is working on. Daunted by Bernard’s success (he mentions to Willy that he is going to Washington to fight a case), Willy asks Bernard why Biff turned out to be such a failure. Bernard asks Willy what happened in Boston that made Biff decide not to go to summer school. Willy defensively tells Bernard not to blame him.
Charley enters and sees Bernard off. When Willy asks for more money than Charley usually loans him, Charley again offers Willy a job. Willy again refuses and eventually tells Charley that he was fired. Charley scolds Willy for always needing to be liked and angrily gives him the money. Calling Charley his only friend, Willy exits on the verge of tears.
At Frank’s Chop House, Happy helps Stanley, a waiter, prepare a table. They ogle and chat up a girl, Miss Forsythe, who enters the restaurant. Biff enters, and Happy introduces him to Miss Forsythe, continuing to flirt with her. Miss Forsythe, a call girl, leaves to telephone another call girl (at Happy’s request), and Biff spills out that he waited six hours for Bill Oliver and Oliver didn’t even recognize him. Upset at his father’s unrelenting misconception that he, Biff, was a salesman for Oliver, Biff plans to relieve Willy of his illusions. Willy enters, and Biff tries gently, at first, to tell him what happened at Oliver’s office. Willy blurts out that he was fired. Stunned, Biff again tries to let Willy down easily. Happy cuts in with remarks suggesting Biff’s success, and Willy eagerly awaits the good news.

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