Milk hygiene

Milk hygiene

Milk hygiene is concerned with the production of clean, wholesome milk that is free from bacteria or other disease causing micro-organisms and maintenance of this condition from farm to the consumers.

In general milk is considered as the most nutritious and complete food for neonates and adult human beings both. An approximate composition of major constituents in milk of different animal origins is given in Table below:    

Table: Percent composition of milk of different animal origins

Source (Animal)	Percent composition
	Total Protein	Casein	Whey protein	Fat	Carbohydrate
Buffalo	4.0	3.5	0.5	7.5	4.8
Cow	3.5	2.8	0.7	3.7	4.8
Goat	3.6	2.7	0.9	4.1	4.7
Sheep	5.8	4.9	0.9	7.9	4.5

Dairy industry provides an excellent example where bacteria, yeasts, moulds and viruses are very important in determining the quality of final product. The control and destruction of undesirable microorganisms, as well as their intentional introduction and utilization are problems that need special attention. The nutritional qualities of milk make it a desirable food for humans and other young animals. However, these nutritional values also permit growth of many microorganisms, some of which cause undesirable changes in milk and its products. Milks sanitary qualities are influenced by many factors in the course of production, processing, and delivery to the consumers.

An example of dairy industry which is dependent to a larger extent on the desirable enzymatic changes caused by microorganisms is cheese making. The flavours and the texture of cheese are largely ascribed to the conversion of milk constituents by various species. Few bacterial and mould species are added intentionally to cheese during manufacturing and much of the microbial activity in that, takes place during ripening are due to microbial species that enter the milk by chance at different stages.

The taste and aroma are competitive assets of butter. Starter cultures; that are mixed bacterial cultures selected for acid- and flavor-producing ability, are important in the manufacture of flavored butter. The conditions in which optimum flavor develops and the relationships with microbes are well known, and certainly the changes brought about by the starters are desirable.

Yogurt, sour cream, and buttermilk are some of the examples of fermented milks made by different intervention of microorganisms to milk, cream, and skim milk, respectively. Each of those products has a characteristic micro-flora that is partly responsible, for its characteristic flavor and texture. It is also possible to ferment milks having desired properties (i.e. flavor and acid-producing) by using starter cultures.

Microbial conversion of certain constituents of milk into economically valuable products like vitamins, solvents, and food adjuncts can be done commercially these days. On the other hand, milk constituents that have no economic significance, or that are usually wasted, must be converted to stably oxidized and non-obnoxious substances prior to their discharge into the environment. Here also microbial activity is responsible for the desired changes in the organic constituents of dairy wastes and of sewage treatment.

Microbes are undesirable in milk or its products, if these deteriorate flavor or texture, and produce diseases. It is important that dairy microbiologists understand the facts that influence the deterioration of milk and the methods through which this type of deterioration can be prevented. Souring of milk or cream is undesirable under majority of situations, but souring (i.e. production of lactic acid) is essential also for the manufacture of cheese or cultured milk products. Discolorations, sliminess, ropiness, putrefaction, rancidity, gassiness, and many other defects are caused by different microbes that grow in dairy products. Milk occasionally has been the carrier of microbes that can cause disease. However, these agents of disease can be effectively controlled. As the new processes and products are developed by the dairy scientists, these must be checked to ensure that these are safe for consumers.

Many ordinances and other regulations under which milk is produced and handled specify quantitative, qualitative, and microbial standards. These standards have shown that under desirable conditions, the numbers of microbes gaining entrance to the product will not exceed certain levels and, also, that proper handling of these products will not permit growth beyond certain levels. To a certain degree, the numbers of microbes permitted on these standards usually are far much below the numbers necessary to cause spoilage. Practically this results into a gradual up-gradation of microbial standards for different dairy products. Because of this type of control, the packaged milk produced by dairy industries is of high microbiological quality and hence, safe to the consumers.

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SEXING CHICKS BY VENT SEXING METHOD

SEXING CHICKS BY VENT SEXING METHOD

• The business of segregating males and females among day-old chicks by examining the rudimentary copulatory organs has become well established.
• The sexing of chicks at hatcheries is carried on most extensively in the commercial layer operations.
• Success in sexing chicks depends upon one's ability to distinguish the rudimentary copulatory organ or process, which is nearly always present in a well-developed condition in males but is nearly always absent in females.
• A considerable amount of training and experience are needed to enable one to sex chicks with a high degree of accuracy at a fast enough rate to make the undertaking an economic success at most hatcheries.
• So many chick sexers of Japanese origin use this method that is often referred to as the "Japanese Method" or called “vent sexing”.
• By use of a special instrument, "proctoscope," it is possible to see the testes of male chicks through the intestinal wall of day-old chicks.
• This method has been used successfully for day-old chicks and has the advantage of requiring less training and skill than the Japanese method.
• Chick sexing is considered to be a hatchery service that must be routinely offered.

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Dairy Engineering

Dairy Engineering:

a. The plate type heater exchange is mostly used in large sizes dairies.

b. Brine-concentrated CaCl or NaCl solution is used for cooling water or milk directly.

c. Solid CO2 is called Dry ice.

d. Pasteurization (3 types)

1. Batch pasteurization – milk heated at 61″C for 30 minutes

2. HTST – milk heated at 7r’C for 15 seconds

3. Ultra HTST – milk heated at 135″C for 2 seconds or no holding time at all

4. Vacreator – used for conditioning and pasteurizing of cream milk.

e. Two most commonly used refrigerators are Ammonia and Freon-10.

f. Hoinogenization is mechanical treatment used to reduce diameter of the fat globule by a factor 10.

g. Sterilization: milk is heated at temperature above 100″C and packed in air tight condition.

h. Types of dairy barns:

1. The stanchion barn (general purpose barn) – cow are housed and milked in the same building.

2. Loose housing barn with milking room (milking house system – cows are covered in covered or partially covered yard, but milked in batches in a special milking house called the milking parlour.

3. The open air barn (loafing barn system) does not have any cover.

4. Pen barns are structures for sheltering and restricting dairy animals.

h. Types of poultry houses:

1. Wire floored poultry house – water trough, roosts, nest, feed trough, expanded metal floor roof, egg retainer are the component of house.

2. Deep litter poultry house, keeping poultry inside a shed all the time (floor area per birds – 0.36 m2).

3. Cages house – built in warm climate. The dimensions of a cage for one bird may be 0.6 x 0.2 x 0.45 m.

4. Brooder house are essential in raising and managing chicks.

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Poultry Scholarship at cornell university

This scholarship was established in 2006 with a gift from Dr. Randal Cole '37 MS, '39 PhD to provide financial assistance to students enrolled in the College of Veterinary Medicine who demonstrate financial need. First preference will be to students who show an interest in poultry medicine.







For details please visit https://www2.vet.cornell.edu/education/doctor-veterinary-medicine/financial-aid/policies-funding-sources/scholarships

Some oter scholarship offered by cornell university are-

 All-Celia Scholarship

An endowment established in 1991 through an estate gift from Iris de la Torre Bueno, awards are made to female veterinary students with a special interest in canine medicine.

 American Veterinary Medical Foundation Scholarship

The Foundation established the Veterinary Student Scholarship Fund in 1997, awarding annual grants to all 28 veterinary colleges accredited by the American Veterinary Medical Association.  This award provides financial assistance to veterinary medical students for bona fide educational expenses.

 Anita Schleider Scholarship

This scholarship fund was established in 2007 to benefit veterinary medicine students who are specializing in small animals and are eligible for scholarships on the basis of financial need and/or scholastic achievement.

 Anna and Hyman Greenberg Scholarship

Established in 2005 by Dr. Malcolm Kram '74 to honor his grandparents, Anna and Hyman Greenberg, this scholarship will support gay or lesbian students at Cornell University's College of Veterinary Medicine, or direct descendents of Anna and Hyman Greenberg seeking the same degree.

 Arthur G. Hall Scholarship

This award was established in 1975 in memory of Arthur G. Hall DVM '08, who supported several students in the veterinary curriculum before his death in the late 1940s.  The scholarship is designated for needy and worthy students who maintain the moral standards required by the rules and regulations of the College.

 Auxiliary to the New York State Veterinary Medical Society Scholarship

This scholarship, established by the Auxiliary to the NYSVMS in memory of Dr. Louis and Beatrice Schimoler, is given to any student in his/her sophomore year based on financial need and creditable academic work, with preference to a New York State resident.

 Barbara R. Benz Scholarship

An endowed scholarship established in 1995 from the estate of Barbara Benz, who was an animal lover and wished to ensure quality care of animals. Her veterinarian, Stephen Ettinger DVM '64, had suggested that she consider a scholarship gift to Cornell's College of Veterinary Medicine when making her estate plans. Awards provide financial assistance to veterinary students.

 Bil-Jac Scholarship

An annual scholarship provided to various colleges of veterinary medicine in areas of the United States where Bil-Jac products are marketed. The student recipient must have financial need, must be a second- or third-year student, have interests in small animal medicine and small animal nutrition, and be in the upper one-third of his/her class academically.

 Billy Haughton Memorial Scholarship

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Senses of cat

Cats have the same 5 senses as people do but to very different degrees. Some senses are much better developed than in people.

Sight

Cats have keen vision; they can see much more detail than dogs. Concentrated in the center of the retina of the eye, a specific type of cell called a cone gives cats excellent visual acuity and binocular vision. This allows them to judge speed and distance very well, an ability that helped them survive as hunters. However, although the cone cells are also responsible for color vision, it is uncertain whether cats can see colors. Like dogs, cats also have a lot of the retinal cells called rods, which are good at collecting dim light. In fact, cats can see 6 times better in dim light than people, giving rise to the myth that cats can see in the dark. Cats also have a reflective layer called the tapetum lucidum, which magnifies incoming light and lends a characteristic blue or greenish glint to their eyes at night.

A unique feature of both canine and feline eyes is the nictitating membrane, which is also called the third eyelid. This additional eyelid is a whitish pink color and is found under the other eyelids in the inside corner (near the nose) of the eye. The third eyelid extends up when needed to protect the eyeball from scratches (such as while traveling through brush) or in response to inflammation.

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Hearing

Cats are very sensitive to sound, with a range of hearing both above and below the range of frequencies that can be detected by people. They can hear better than people and even better than most dogs. Feline hearing also acts as a direction finder, which is useful for hunting purposes. Cats generally turn their heads toward the direction of the sound while listening to pinpoint the location. The ear canal of cats is deeper and more tapered than in people. This deeper canal is subject to buildup of dirt and wax that can lead to inflammation and secondary infection, although to a lesser degree than in dogs.

The semicircular canals, which are found within the inner ear, are filled with fluid and are important for maintaining balance. These are highly developed in cats, accounting for their agility and excellent sense of balance. Cats can usually determine their body position at all times and can rapidly right themselves when falling, which explains the origin of the phrase, “Cats always land on their feet.”

Smell and Taste

Cats do not rely as much on the sense of smell as some other animals. The sense of smell is less developed in cats than in dogs. Like people, cats are finicky about odors and try to cover disagreeable smells. Also like people, odor is an extremely important part of taste and enjoyment of food for cats. Cats that have lost their sense of smell due to illness (such as nasal or severe respiratory infection, nerve damage, or certain cancers) often stop eating completely.

Most cats are excited by the smell of catnip, a plant that is a member of the mint family. However, not all cats react in the same way. Some become manic, others roll and purr, others are minimally affected. This herb is harmless and can be given to your cat either directly or as part of a catnip toy or ball.

For senses of dog

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Morphology of Red Chitagong cattle

Morphoology:

The length, height and the heart girth was 127±2.59 cm, 121±2.18 cm and 108±5.14 cm in male Cattle and 103±3.56 cm, 102±3.34cm and 134±4.21 cm in female Cattle. The horn, ear and teat pattern were almost similar with findings of Payne (2003). Thereasons of some variation in the observation of morphometric characteristics were due to environmental change and management

system. 

•  Coat color- Reddish, reddish yellow & reddish red.
• Muzzle color- Whitish & reddish.
• Hoof -reddish , pale red.
• Horn- reddish black
• Eye brow- reddish

1. Lactation length was found as 210.12±7.59 days. 
2. Average age of maturity of RCC was 32.42±3.58 months.
3.The average gestation length of RCC was found as 283±7.53 days.
4.The age at first calving wasobserved as 43.10±4.59 months.
5. The average calving interval of RCC in this study was found as 14.50±3.85 months. 

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, among the different types of cattle available in Bangladesh, the RCC is one of the most potential and promising type of Farm Animal Genetic Resource (FAnGR). In this study, these cattle are described or characterized by providing basic information of their morphological, productive and reproductive characteristics. The result obtained in this study based on the field survey. Therefore, further study should be carried out on few characters not studied in this experiment like genetic characteristics for their characterization, conservation and improvement.

You can see this video performed by BLRI

For more information please see...

Ahmed, Z., and T. S. Islam. 1997. Cattle breeding program through Artificial Insemination in Bangladesh. AI Extension Project

Report, Central Cattle Breeding and Bull Station, Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 1: 23-26.

Ali, S. M. 1962. A thought on cattle breeding policy for East Pakistan: Insemination. Seminar on East Pakistan Livestock.

Directorate of Livestock Services, East Pakistan, Dhaka, 21-34.

Ghose, S. C., Haque, M., Rahman, M., and M. Saadullah. 2004. A Comparative study of age at first calving, gestation period and

calving interval of different breeds of cattle. Bangladesh Veterinary Journal, 11 (1&4): 9-14.

Habib, M. A., Bhuiyan, A. K. F. H., Bhuiyan, M. S. A. and A. Khan. 2003. Performance of Red Chittagong Cattle in Bangladesh

Agricultural University Dairy Farm. Bangladesh Journal of Animal Science, 32 (1&2): 101-108.

Hasnath, M. A. 1999. Studies on crossbred cattle. Research bulletin. Department of Animal Breeding and Genetics. Bangladesh

Agricultural University, Mymensingh, 2 (1): 37-39.

Khan, M. K. I., Huque, K. S., Miah, A. G., and M. J. Khatun. 2000. Study on the performance of Red Chittagong cows under

different production systems. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences, 3(2): 318-319.

Mason, I. L. 1998. A world dictionary of livestock breeds, types and varieties. Third edition, CAB, Wallingford, 245-251.

Payne, W. K. A. 2003. Cattle Production in the Tropics. Volume 1. Longman Group Limited, England, 122-128.

Udo, F. F. 1994. Use of Ruminant Genetic Resources in the Tropics. Wageningen Agricultural University, Netherlands, 3 (1) 78-85

 
 

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2 PLANT LAYOUT AND CONSTRUCTION DETAILS for Poultry processing

Design & construction of poultry processing plant : part 1

Design & construction of poultry processing plant : part 2

Introduction

The poultry industry is very highly integrated in many countries. The date on which the next batch of day-old chicks are required is conveyed to the hatchery. Broiler production has almost standardised on the number of birds/broiler house so the number of day olds for the order is known. Feed manufacturers provide exactly the right amount of the right type of feed for the venture on time. The growth time for the chicks is known so the date of slaughter is contracted automatically. The clear out/clean up time for the broiler house is programmed for the next batch of day-olds to be delivered and in production with no idle time. At the poultry packing house, standard sized birds are delivered according to a contract date and time. They are suspended almost immediately on arrival and slaughtered and processed without delay. Processing speeds are variable but 2500 to 4000 birds/hour are not out of the ordinary. There is evisceration machinery which works at over 6000 birds/hour, and slaughter lines which work at 12 000/hour.

Considering the scale mentioned above, the throughput which forms the basis of this document takes on a new significance. Manufacturers of equipment for poultry processing on a very small scale are few and far between since poultry producers are very much aware of the economies of scale (and are involved in a fiercely competitive industry) and the manufacturers have more interest in the very large scale of opertions.

Development of the Models

Three scales of operation have been chosen to described the construction and operation of small scale poultry processing plants. The first, 50 birds/day, is intended to be an improvement on backyard slaughter. It presents a plan to improve hygiene and product quality on existing systems of small scale production. It can be equipped to process up to 100 birds/hour. The second, 200 birds/day, assumes that the system of operation of the first has led to an increase in demand for the product and there is a need for expansion of operations. It also presents an opportunity to describe other types of equipment and operational systems which can be scaled up to 500 birds/hour. Model 3 is the smallest practical on-line system and offers an alternative to the “manual” production methods described in the first two models. The three models are based on buildings which exist today in developing countries. They show full operational facilities. Other plans, found in Annex 8, show standard layouts of the slaughter facilities only but serve to demonstrate the wide range of facilities which may be required to fit most circumstances overseas where small scale poultry processing factories are required.

Model 1 Very Small Scale Abattoir - 50 birds/day

Economic viability at a production level of 50 birds/day is unlikely to be achieved and therefore social, environmental and public health considerations should be studied (and possibly quantified) at the feasibility stage if the project is to proceed. At this scale there is plenty of scope to increase throughput with a little thought, possibly up to 100/hour. It is difficult to design a smaller plant. A plan of the processing plant is given in Drawing 1. The equipment used, its specification and the staffing requirements are given in Annex 3.

It is the intention that all poultry produced within the plant will be slaughtered, sold and eaten the same day. It is assumed that the area has no history of processed poultry, so the plant is designed to produce New York Dressed birds using a dry plucker. Expensive ice production or refrigeration capacity are neither required nor installed. Dry plucking has several advantages over wet methods. The birds may by plucked “hot” or cold and the microbiological problems associated with scalding and increased surface moisture are not encountered. In New York Dressed birds, contamination and spoilage by visceral microflora is greatly reduced and the shelf life of the carcase is greater than it would be had it been eviscerated and not refrigerated. Dry plucked birds can be kept at tropical ambient temperatures for a few hours only but a couple of hours longer than eviscerated carcases.

As the viscera are left intact, waste materials comprise feathers and waste water only.

The plant is designed as part of a progressive package to be adapted as the market expands.

Model 2 Very Small Scale Abattoir/Processing Room - 200 birds/day

In this model, it is assumed that the locality has a marketing history of processed poultry and is now ready for eviscerated carcases. Reference to Drawing Nos 1 & 2 shows Model 2 to be an expansion of Model 1. Economic viability is not assured.

As the throughput and type of operation has expanded the machinery is changed to include a soft scald system with a bowl plucker, although dry plucking could have continued. Evisceration is carried out and the carcases cooled in either a tank of water cooled by a refrigerated unit attached to the tank or a static tank containing slush ice.

The model is drawn up to show how whole poultry carcases may be packed into bags and chilled. At a later stage of development, chicken portions may be prepared and all the products frozen prior to dispatch.

Details of the abattoir are given in Drawing 2. The equipment required, their specifications and the staffing levels needed to operate it are given in Annex 4. The plan is for the birds to be brought from one large and several small producers and each producer choses to sell his own poultry. In this case, there is a need to label each bird individually and to charge each producer a slaughter fee. This is a difficult operation and needs a larger office and more administration staff than the system where the abattoir management buys the birds from the producer, or the birds belong to a few producers in large numbers.

In this model, the feathers, heads, feet and viscera are to be removed. These materials make up about 25% of the weight of the bird as solid waste which needs disposal. In the drawing, the materials are taken away in a skip for further processing.

Model 3 Small Scale Abattoir - 350 birds/hour

The third example of small scale poultry abattoir chosen for this document will slaughter 350 birds each hour. This scale may approach economic viability in some areas of the world but if not, environmental, social and public health considerations should again be assessed at the feasibility stage.

Slaughter throughputs of between 350 and 500 birds/hour can be processed on simple “static” lines as described for models 1 & 2. Drawings of the equipment and layout required have been included in Annex 6. At about 350 birds/hour, the overhead conveyor system may be appropriate as it allows for greater expansion of the throughput should this be desired at a later stage. Details of the design of the abattoir are given in Drawing 3. Model 3 has been drawn up to show a system of slaughter using an overhead conveyor. The equipment required, their specifications and the staffing levels needed to operate it are given in Annex 5.

The processing plant will slaughter poultry, chill carcases prior to cutting them into portions for freezing. Daily dispatch is planned, as installed freezer capacity is sufficient for only 1 1/2 days production. There is some scope for the preparation of chilled poultry. The birds will be bought by the factory and sold either to wholesalers or buyers of at least 20% of the days production. This reduces the administrative load to manageable levels.

Concerning operation, two types of plucker are proposed, either a bowl or a drum/flail system following soft scalding at 52°C. Evisceration is carried out on an overhead rail system. Since the weight of the by-products will amount to about 750kg/day, feathers, heads, feet and viscera pass to a truck for disposal rather than undergo further processing. However, some suggestions are made later about the possibilities for offal use.

Three carcase chilling systems are proposed. The first is to chill in cooled (refrigerated) water, the second in slush ice followed by drainage on a rack. The third system involves cooling the birds on a rack in an air chiller. The systems are fundamentally different and will require economic analysis before the best system can be advised. Factors to be considered include the capital and recurrent costs of the equipment, its maintenance and spares, the regularity of use, the size of the load regularly slaughtered, microbiological status of the carcase and the weight changes which take place during the two different methods of processing.

Notes on the Drawings

There are some points to note about all sets of drawings. The number of doors to the outside have been reduced to the minimum in the interests of security. In Model 2, a door could be constructed to the outside in the evisceration room in those regions where security is not of great concern.

The dirty and clean operations are separated. “Clean” and “Dirty” workers are separated and there are “windows” through which product passes but personnel cannot. The staff facilities are separated by a corridor and processing rooms do not open directly to the outside. Staff facilities share plumbing runs with others, the laundry in one case and the crate wash in the other. The dry stores are accessible both to deliveries and for the packing room. The machine room is separated from product rooms. Maintenance and service engineers do not need to enter clean production rooms unnecessarily.

The product flows smoothly through the rooms which are separated into reception; slaughter, scalding and defeathering; evisceration, washing and giblet processing; chilling; cutting and packing; chilling and freezing; dispatch.

The equipment, given in the lists in Annexes 3, 4 and 5, is mainly from a specialist equipment supplier but some items are of local fabrication. The general manufacturing principles to follow are given earlier.

Note that the drains flow from clean areas to dirty. Note also the position of service points, particularly wash hand basins, water, steam, electricity, lighting, fans for ventilation and ice.

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