Promoting Hegemonic Masculinity

Investigations into popular culture representations of masculinity suggest that hegemonic masculinity and its corresponding characteristics are emphasized (Craig, 1992, 1993; Evans & Davies, 2000; Gauntlett, 2002; Hanke, 1992; Messner, 2000; Vigorito & Curry, 1998).  This is particularly true within sport, which has always been regarded as a male domain (Lenskyj, 1990; Messner, 1988) and highly symbolic of masculine culture (Dworkin & Wachs, 1998; Koivula, 2001; Thornton, 1993). In particular, sport emphasizes the characteristics of the dominant masculinity such as violence and aggression (Dworkin & Wachs, 1998; Thornton, 1993), toughness (Dworkin & Wachs, 1998; Messner, Hunt, & Dunbar, 2001; Sabo & Gordon, 1995), risk-taking (Coakley, 1994; Sabo & Gordon, 1995), and competition (Koivula, 2001; Thornton, 1993).

            As a primary masculine culture in which the characteristics of hegemonic masculinity are highly valued and frequently displayed, sport culture may be considered an important socializing agent for learning masculinity and masculine behaviour.  Messner (1992), for example, contends that sport is one of the most powerful socializing institutions for masculinity, while Messner et al. (2001) maintain that sports programming sends uniquely powerful messages that may aid in the socialization of males into the dominant masculine culture.

            While there have been numerous investigations into masculinity in sport, few of these investigations have focused specifically on professional wrestling.  This may be largely due to the discounting of professional wrestling as a legitimate “sport” (Atkinson, 2002) and its categorization as a form of entertainment.  Nevertheless, Atkinson (2002) argues that professional wrestling is conceptually comparable to professional sports such as football, hockey, and soccer, and Schnirring (2000) contends that professional wrestlers are much like other competitive athletes.  Thus, professional wrestling can be considered a pseudo-sport, and as such, investigations of masculinity in professional wrestling can be undertaken to determine whether professional wrestling exhibits the same kind of dominant “cult of masculinity” revealed in sport.

            To date, only a handful of critical commentaries, conference papers, and graduate research projects have looked at masculinity or gender roles within professional wrestling, with only a footnote or two appearing in published academic papers dealing with sport and masculinity (see Messner et al., 2001). Nevertheless, what has been done suggests that masculinity is presented in professional wrestling primarily in its culturally ideal form.  For example, Jhally and Katz (2002) contend that professional wrestling glamorizes the culturally ideal form of masculinity, emphasizing physical strength and aggression. Likewise, the Communication Studies 298 research team (2000) found evidence of a hegemonic masculinity in professional wrestling displays which emphasizes strength, toughness, aggression, violence, and dominance.  In performing a textual analysis of Wrestlemania events, Cherry (2002) similarly found the dominant masculinity to be strong in professional wrestling with themes of violence, strength, toughness, emotional restraint, and athleticism predominant.  Moreover, Atkinson (2002) argues that many of the masculine characteristics presented in professional wrestling are the same characteristics exalted in conventional male sports, including violence and aggression, physical prowess, competition, athleticism, courage, and physical toughness.

            Interestingly, Stroud (2000) contends that professional wrestling may be even more extreme in constructing masculinity than so-called conventional sports.  Including professional wrestling in their analysis of sport and masculinity, Messner et al. (2001) found that messages about masculinity were most clear in the dramatic spectacle of professional wrestling.  Moreover, while Mazer (1998) argues that alternative masculinities are sometimes presented in professional wrestling, she maintains that it is typically the culturally dominant form of masculinity that is packaged and sold to professional wrestling audiences.

            As professional wrestling may be considered an alternative form of sport with a heavy entertainment component, it might be expected that this form of “sports-entertainment” would provide more opportunity for alternative expressions of masculinity than mainstream sports.  Thematic analyses concentrating on the construction of masculinity in televised professional wrestling were thus undertaken to determine whether alternatives to hegemonic masculinity were given space for expression within this popular pseudo-sport.